Exploring the Animal Waste Resistome: The Spread of Antimicrobial Resistance Genes Through the Use of Livestock Manure

Antibiotic resistance is a public health problem of growing concern. Animal manure application to soil is considered to be a main cause of the propagation and dissemination of antibiotic residues, antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARB), and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in the soil-water system. In recent decades, studies on the impact of antibioticcontaminated manure on soil microbiomes have increased exponentially, in particular for taxonomical diversity and ARGs’ diffusion. Antibiotic resistance genes are often located on mobile genetic elements (MGEs). Horizontal transfer of MGEs toward a broad range of bacteria (pathogens and human commensals included) has been identified as the main cause for their persistence and dissemination. Chemical and bio-sanitizing treatments reduce the antibiotic load and ARB. Nevertheless, effects of these treatments on the persistence of resistance genes must be carefully considered. This review analyzed the most recent research on antibiotic and ARG environmental dissemination conveyed by livestock waste. Strategies to control ARG dissemination and antibiotic persistence were reviewed with the aim to identify methods for monitoring DNA transferability and environmental conditions promoting such diffusion.