Towards Green and Smart Ro–Ro Port Terminal Operations: A Comparative Analysis of ICE, BET and e-AGT Tractors

The decarbonization and automation of port operations are emerging as key strategies to enhance the sustainability and efficiency of maritime logistics. This study proposes a simulation-based framework to assess the operational and environmental impacts of transitioning from traditional Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) tractors to Battery Electric Tractors (BET) and Automated Electric Guided Tractors (e-AGT) in Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) port terminal operations. The proposed framework is applied to simulate a full vessel turnaround at the Ro-Ro terminal of the Port of Ravenna (Italy). A set of Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) is defined to evaluate turnaround time, vehicle productivity, energy consumption and CO₂ emissions across three scenarios. The results indicate that both BET and e-AGT configurations significantly reduce emissions compared to ICE, with reduc-tions up to 40%. However, the e-AGT scenario reveals operational drawbacks, including increased unloading time and reduced fleet availability due to charging constraints and routing limitations. These findings highlight the environmental potential of automation and electrification but also emphasize the need for integrated planning of fleet size, charging infrastructure and circulation specifications. The proposed framework provides a replicable decision-support tool for port authorities and logistics operators to evaluate alternative handling technologies under realistic conditions.