Can spirituality save centuries-old trees and forests? A study from the mountains of NW Greece

The Sacred Natural Sites (SNS) of Epirus are either solitary trees or groups of trees adjacent to churches, or old-growth forests associated with villages. SNS contain naturally-shaped, centuries-old trees of various species.Rules enforced by fear of supernatural punishment meant local people did not cut SNS trees for timber or fodder. Church trees are associated with rituals and aesthetic values, while sacred forests are multifunctional socio-ecological systems linked to important ecosystem services: they protect settlements from natural disasters, contribute to the conservation of important natural resources such as scarce water supplies, serve as emergency or crisis reserves, and indirectly mitigate internal community conflicts. Protection of sacred forests continues to evolve with those in Zagori and Konitsa including in the national inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO) in 2015. Further recognition of the value of SNS could provide opportunities for nature protection through a deeper appreciation of the role of spirituality in conservation.