Analytical methods employed in the identification and quantification of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in human matrices - A scoping review

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) represent a possible hazard for the ecosystems, with adverse outcomes on wildlife and humans. POPs have always received interest from the scientific community, and they have also been subject to legal restrictions worldwide on their application and commercialization. Among the broad spectrum of POPs, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are considered emerging contaminants due to their potential effect on the ecosystem and human health. These contaminants are widely employed in countless applications, from surfactants and building materials to food packaging. On the other hand, their chemical structure gives them the ability to interact with the environment, causing possible toxic effects for humans and environment. Human biomonitoring is a necessary instrument to indagate the impact of PFASs on human health: in recent years several studies have found detectable levels of PFASs in several biological matrices in humans (blood, hair, nails, and urine). Here, we review the most recent scientific literature concerning analytical methods employed in the identification and quantification of PFASs focusing on biological matrices. It has been noted that liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is the main analytical instrumentation employed, while blood and/or serum samples are the main employed human matrices whereas the use of non-invasive matrices is still at the beginning. Various issues directly related to human metabolism of PFASs and the effective amount of PFAS absorbed from the environment still need to be investigated.