Life Cycle Assessment of Hybrid Renewable-Powered Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination for Secure Water Supply: Site-Specific Energy Modelling and Impact Redistribution in Grid-Connected Coastal and Small-Island Contexts in Sicily

Seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination is electricity-intensive, making its environmental performance highly dependent on the power supply. This study couples site-specific energy-system modelling with life cycle assessment to examine how renewable integration changes both total impacts and life-cycle hotspots. A modelled SWRO plant with a specific electricity consumption of 3.4 kWh m−3 , derived from a process model for Mediterranean feedwater at 48% recovery with energy recovery devices, was assessed in Gela and Trapani, two grid-connected coastal sites with contrasting wind resources, and Lipari, a non-interconnected island with carbon-intensive backup generation. Grid-only, photovoltaic (PV)-grid, wind-grid, and PV-wind-grid configurations were modelled in HOMER Pro without storage and with excess electricity limited to 13%, then evaluated in SimaPro using Environmental Footprint 3.1. Hybrid configurations supplied 46.7%, 64.4%, and 53.3% renewable electricity in Gela, Trapani, and Lipari, reducing climate-change impacts by 30%, 42%, and 45%, respectively. Renewable integration also lowered fossil resource use, whereas PV-containing scenarios increased land and mineral/metal resource use. As electricity-related impacts declined, chemical consumption became the main non-energy hotspot, particularly for ecotoxicity, freshwater and eutrophication. Environmental performance therefore depends not only on renewable penetration, but also on technology choice and the residual electricity supply. Comprehensive system boundaries are essential when planning lower-carbon desalination for coastal and island water security.