Biosecurity governance and on-farm implementation in the European livestock sector: regulatory heterogeneity, assessment tools and evidence gaps – A scoping review

Background: Biosecurity is a cornerstone of infectious disease prevention in livestock production and a key component of the One Health approach. Although Regulation (EU) 2016/429 established a common risk-based framework, its implementation has resulted in substantial regulatory and operational heterogeneity across European countries. This scoping review aimed to map the available evidence on the implementation, assessment, and governance of on-farm biosecurity across Europe. Methods: Following the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, PubMed, Scopus, and ScienceDirect were searched for peerreviewed studies published between 2016 and 2025. Selected institutional documents identified through reference screening were also included if they contained original evidence or structured information directly relevant to biosecurity implementation. Eligible sources addressed the implementation, assessment, or governance of onfarm biosecurity in European Union or the United Kingdom. Of the 2729 records initially identified, 61 sources met the inclusion criteria. Results: The reviewed literature highlighted substantial heterogeneity in biosecurity assessment approaches, implementation strategies, and governance frameworks across countries and livestock sectors. The included sources were grouped into five predominant categories based on a combination of their primary methodological approach and source type: 22 (36.07%) used checklists or assessment tools, 19 (31.15%) were survey-based, 8 (13.11%) employed qualitative interviews or focus groups, 7 (11.48%) consisted of technical or legislative reports and scientific opinions, and 5 (8.2%) formed a heterogeneous residual category comprising qualitative social research approach, perspective article, conceptual analysys, descriptive policy overview and Expert Knowledge Elicitation process. Although standardized checklists provide valuable benchmarking, their generic design may limit their applicability to heterogeneous production systems, particularly small-scale and mountain farms. The evidence also showed that the adoption of biosecurity measures is influenced by psychosocial and economic factors, indicating that effective implementation requires approaches that extend beyond infrastructure-based assessments. Conclusion: The available evidence supports the development of more pragmatic and context-sensitive approaches to livestock biosecurity. Harmonized minimum requirements, multi-step assessment procedures, and interoperable core datasets could improve comparability across countries while preserving the flexibility needed to accommodate different animal species, production systems, and local epidemiological conditions. Farm veterinarians are well positioned to act as key facilitators within a broader governance network involving farmers, competent authorities, industry organizations, and other supply-chain stakeholders.