Innovative technologies for recovery and recycling of rare earth elements (REEs) for neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) permanent magnets in high-tech and green energy applications

In recent years the global geopolitical landscape has raised concerns about potential shortage in supply for various raw materials that are economically vital due to their key roles in end-use applications and the added value they bring to related industrial sectors. They have been classified as Critical Raw Materials (CRMs) by the European Union since 2011, with the list of CRMs being revised approximately every three years. The newly introduced EU Regulation, the so-called Critical Raw Materials Act (European Union, 2024, European Parliament, 2025), establishes a framework to safeguard a secure and sustainable supply of CRMs across the EU. In addition to updating the list of CRMs for the whole EU economy, the Regulation also identifies the strategic raw materials, i.e. those most crucial for key technologies enabling the green transition, the digital transformation, and supporting defense and aerospace sectors. Among these are the rare earth elements (REEs) for permanent magnets (such as Nd, Pr, Tb, Dy, Gd, Sm, and Ce), which are used in many high-tech and green energy applications, including electric vehicles (EVs), wind turbines (WTs), hard drive disks (HDDs). As EU is entirely dependent on REEs import from third countries, primarily China, it is crucial to develop a secure supply chain at EU level that includes REEs recovery and recycling to mitigate the risk of supply disruption. Focusing on REEs for permanent magnets, this paper provides an overview on innovative technologies throughout the whole supply chain in recycling processes with a particular emphasis on neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets, which are widely used in the market, especially in low-carbon technologies.