Revised historical sources on the eruptive activity and chronology of Vulcano island (Italy)

Vulcano Island has experienced recurrent historical eruptive activity from the La Fossa and Vulcanello cones, including predominantly phreatomagmatic, Vulcanian, and occasionally Strombolian eruptions. It has also produced several effusive events and phreatic explosions. Despite extensive geological investigations and numerous radiometric and palaeomagnetic age determinations, significant gaps persist in the chronology and source attribution of historical eruptions. These gaps largely reflect stratigraphic complexity and the limited availability of reliable tephrostratigraphic markers. This study presents a critical reassessment of the eruptive chronology and vent locations of the La Fossa and Vulcanello cones from the 4th century BCE to the 18th century CE. We employ a multidisciplinary approach integrating historiographical analysis with recent volcanological and stratigraphic data. A systematic review of historical texts and iconographic sources was conducted, using rigorous philological criteria, to assess their reliability and their temporal and spatial resolution independently of existing volcanological interpretations. Key results include: (1) The identification of the initial emergence of the Vulcanello cone and associated lava platform between 183 and 126 BCE, and its subsequent stabilization in later centuries; (2) The reconstruction of the definitive formation of the isthmus connecting Vulcanello to the rest of Vulcano, attributed to the progressive accumulation of eruptive material from the La Fossa cone. This likely occurred at the beginning of the 16th century and culminated with the 1525-1526 CE eruption; (3) The absence of conclusive textual evidence for modern-era eruptions at the Forgia Vecchia crater, despite geological indicators of older explosive phases during the early development of the La Fossa cone; (4) The refinement of the chronology of the 18th-century Pietre Cotte eruptive cycle, with emplacement of a rhyolitic lava flow in 1739 CE and an associated pumice fallout in 1771 CE, each emitted from different summit vents of the La Fossa cone. The study outlines five major eruptions or eruptive cycles exceeding the typical intensity and magnitude of vulcanian-type explosions. These occurred in the late 4th century BCE, 1444 CE, 1525-26 CE, 1739 CE, and 1771 CE. No major phreatic eruptions are documented in historical sources, aside from the well known and historiographically transparent Breccia di Commenda eruption. However, geological evidence indicates that numerous (minor) phreatic explosions occurred during initial vent-opening phases. These findings demonstrate the value of historical sources in reconstructing Vulcano's eruptive history and underline their potential to enhance the temporal resolution of probabilistic hazard scenarios for the island.