Conclusion

Critical raw materials (CRMs) are crucial materials for the economy. Reliable and unhindered access to CRMs is important for various industrial applications, modern technologies, and green, or clean, energy technologies, including solar panels, wind turbines, and electric vehicles (Dias et al., 2020; European Commission, 2020). Europe has limited access to primary CRM-containing resources. Alternative sources of these materials have to be considered one of the major steps toward ensuring their steady and secure supply. The residues generated during mining, mineral processing, and metallurgical activities can host significant amounts of CRMs and can be regarded as their promising secondary resource. These residues are often stockpiled or stored in dams putting strain on the surrounding environment and occupying large land surfaces. Therefore recovering CRMs from mining residues can contribute to economic revalorization and environmental rehabilitation.