Dipteran parasitoids as biocontrol agents

Parasitoid flies (Diptera) are often overlooked or considered secondary to parasitoid wasps (Hymenoptera) in biological control programs. This disparity is partly due to the relatively lower number of dipteran parasitoids, as they represent about 20% of all parasitoids, the major- ity of which are hymenopterans. However, numerous studies conducted across various temporal and spatial scales worldwide show that dipteran parasitoids can effectively control certain insect pests. We provide an overview of major examples of successful classical and augmentative bio- logical control initiatives, organized by major dipteran families which include parasitoid species (i.e., Tachinidae, Phoridae and Sarcophagidae) and according to different global regions. In ad- dition, examples of unsuccessful attempts are discussed, along with potential reasons for these failures. These include insufficient number of parasitoids released, unfavorable host transfer, and the absence of alternative hosts, which could sustain parasitoid populations when regular hosts are unavailable in certain seasons. A notable drawback found in our literature review is the frequent misidentification of both parasitoid and host species, along with a general scarcity of laboratory and field studies. Further research is needed to better understand the reproductive strategies of dipteran parasitoids and their host-parasitoid interactions. Challenges associated with the production of dipteran parasitoids have also limited their exploitation as biocontrol agents. Expanding the knowledge of these parasitoids is crucial for improving biocontrol strate- gies, particularly against pests for which dipterans play a key role as natural enemies.